|
THE HARMFUL
EFFECTS ON CHILDREN OF EXPOSURE TO PORNOGRAPHY
Pdf
Version Click Here
By
Peter Stock
November 2004
A REPORT
FROM CANADIAN INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATION ON THE FAMILY
©
2004 - Canadian Institute for Education on the Family may be reproduced
without permission providing acknowledgement of Canadian Institute
for Education on the Family is the source of this document is cited.
Executive
Summary
Canadian society has become an increasingly pornographic society
in recent decades with disturbing implications for the children
raised in it. Numerous scientific studies have demonstrated
a strong correlation between exposure to pornography and subsequent
deviant sexual behaviour by children. The explosive growth of the
Internet over the last decade and the freely available pornography
to be found on this new medium pose an additional significant public
health and safety threat to children.
Legislation and regulation are needed to protect children from exposure
to pornography from traditional sources (television, magazines,
etc.) while new criminal code provisions are required to meet the
challenges posed by pornography on the Internet.
Introduction
This
STUDY was provoked by recent news reports of children engaged
in sexually inappropriate behaviour, resulting arguably from viewing
pornography. The first was a late-2003 news report from a Canberra,
Australia hospital whose child-at-risk assessment unit documented
a dramatic increase in the number of children engaged in "sexually
abusive behaviour." In the mid-1990s the unit saw 2-3 cases
a year. By 2000, that had risen to 28, and by late 2003 the unit
had more than 70 cases. The hospital's unit manager Annabel Wyndham
commented, ""We think this is a new thing of the modern
world, because of access to the Net and - to be truthful - combined
with some pretty terrible parenting."1
A March
news story much closer to home covered the story of several unrelated
police investigations of the sexual assault of children by other
children in the Hamilton, Ontario-area. All of the victims were
under the age of 12 and the oldest perpetrator was 13. In each of
the cases, the perpetrators disclosed they were imitating behaviour
they had seen portrayed on pornographic cable television channels
and on the Internet.2
A
THIRD EXAMPLE WOULD HAVE GREAT RHETORICAL FORCE - HOW ABOUT TORONTO
POLICE CHIEF RECENTLY COMMENTING ON USE OF PORNOGRAPHY BY CHILD
MOLESTERS?
Does
exposure to pornography harm children? With the dawning of a new
age of free access to a plethora of such material on the Internet,
the answer to this question has renewed debate over possible public
health consequences and the resultant public policy implications.
Some
Definitions
Pornography
In
Canadian law the production, distribution and possession of most
pornography is no longer a criminal offence, at least as far as
the judiciary is concerned. Most of the law dealing with "obscenity"
was struck down as unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Canada
in the 1992 Butler decision. Exceptions are when children are depicted,
or when other criminal activities (such as rape, bestiality, homicide,
etc.) are also depicted.
Even
so, Canadian law continues to describe pornography as a photographic,
film, video or other visual representation that: shows a person
who is engaged in or is depicted as engaged in explicit sexual activity,
or; the dominant characteristic of which is the depiction, for a
sexual purpose, of a sexual organ or the anal region of a person,
or; any written material or visual representation that advocates
or counsels sexual activity with a person.
More
simply, pornography may be defined as material that is sexually
explicit and intended primarily for the purpose of sexual arousal.
Children
For
the purposes of this paper children are defined, as per section
163.1 of the Criminal Code of Canada, as persons under the age of
eighteen.
Harm
Harm
provoked by exposure to pornography can be inferred from the resultant
deviant or abnormal behaviour on the part of a child. In our view,
resultant behaviour does not have to meet the standard required
for a criminal code conviction to be considered harmful.
Research
into pornography's effects
A debate
has long existed over the type of relationship that exists between
pornography and the sexual behaviour of individuals who consume
it. Some researchers believe that there is a direct causal relationship,
while others argue that such a relationship cannot be proven.
Indeed,
the difficulty of conclusively proving cause and effect is probably
beyond the reach of current research given the necessity of exposing
a large group to pornography and closely monitoring them for months
or even years, while ensuring another control group is never exposed
to pornography and is similarly monitored for months or years. It
is hard to imagine, in our sex-saturated society, how the control
group would not be exposed to some pornography. Conversely, it would
be near impossible to monitor every action of the first group exposed
to the pornography. Or, as such individuals would be aware of the
monitoring, whether they would act 'naturally' (ie: engage in sexually
deviant or criminal behaviour as the causal effect theory of pornography
would predict) knowing that there was always someone looking over
their shoulder.
In
addition, given the harmful outcome (ie: sexually deviant behaviour)
that such a causal study would be predicted to have, it would be
thoroughly unethical for researchers to inflict such material on
subjects in such a study.
However,
what is not debated among serious scholars is the obvious correlative
effect of pornography. A host of studies, from researchers on both
sides of the causal debate, demonstrate a modest to strong correlation
between exposure to pornography and sexually deviant or criminal
behaviour.
Some
Examples of Studies:
- A
1987 study found that women who were battered, or subject to sexual
aggression or humiliation, had partners who viewed significantly
more pornography than those of a control group drawn from a mature
university population. 3
- A
1995 meta-analysis found that violent pornography might reinforce
aggressive behavior and negative attitudes toward women.4
- A
US study of teenagers exposed to "Hard core" pornography,
"Two-thirds of the males and 40% of the females reported
wanting to try out some of the behaviors they had witnessed. And,
31% of males and 18% of the females admitted doing some of the
things sexually they had seen in the pornography within a few
days after exposure."5
- A
1987 "panel of clinicians and researchers concluded that
pornography does stimulate attitudes and behavior that lead to
gravely negative consequences for individuals and for society,
and that these outcomes impair the mental, emotional, and physical
health of children and adults."6
- A
1993 study found, "Exposure to sexually stimulating materials
may elicit aggressive behavior in youth who are predisposed to
aggression. Sexually violent and degrading material elicits greater
rates of aggression and may negatively affect male attitudes toward
women." 7
- A
1984 evaluation of the increase in rape rates in various countries
bears close correlation to liberalizing of restrictions on pornography.8
- Three
separate studies demonstrate that exposure to violent pornography
may increase males' laboratory aggression toward women.9,10,11
Sources
Numerous
sources of pornography have long been available in Canadian society,
from magazines to films and television, but children have traditionally
been denied access to significant quantities of this material through
a combination of government regulation and parental direction.
Even
so, in the years immediately before wide public access to the Internet,
a 1986 study of 600 teenagers in the US, "found that 91%
of the males and 82% of the females admitted having been exposed
to X-rated, hard-core pornography." 12 There
are numerous sources from which children may be exposed.
Magazines
In
a 1979 survey of over 600 boys and girls aged 15 to 18, Aaron Hass
found that almost 100% of boys and over 90% of girls had, "looked
at sexy books or magazines…almost 60% of boys and over 40%
of girls had seen a sexual movie." Hass found that the youth
accepted the information as presented in magazines at face value.
Hass concluded that, "Almost all teenagers have seen or read
some form of pornography… Pornography provides teenagers with
a sexual education. Many adolescents turn to movies, pictures and
articles to find out exactly how to have sexual relations."
13
Twenty-five
years later, the pornographic pictures and stories contained in
thousands of magazines have found their way onto the Internet for
any child to access. Though subscription based pornographic magazines
have seen circulation decline or, in the case of Penthouse, disappear
completely, their impact on children has increased as the material
has entered the Web.
TV
Television
is, perhaps, the most powerful of all the media stimuli that influences
individuals and society. North Americans, particularly children,
regularly watch significant amounts of television programming. Only
recently has the Internet come close to challenging the dominance
of television in terms of hours spent using media, according some
recent surveys.
The
content of much Canadian television has become highly sexualized
in recent years. Some channels, such as Showcase, regularly broadcast
'hard-core' pornographic movies. Other more 'mainstream' channels
are not immune to such activities, and additionally offer regularly
scheduled prime-time programming, such as CBC's Fashion File or
CTV's The Sopranos, that feature as much sexualized nudity as would
be found in a seedy strip club.
The
effect of such freely available programming on children cannot be
understated. A 2004 study funded by the US National Institute of
Child Health found that teens who watch a lot of such sexualized
programming are twice as likely to engage in sexual intercourse
themselves. The study of 1,792 12 to 17 year-olds were surveyed
twice over the course of a year.
Rebecca
Collins, a RAND Corporation psychologist who led the study said,
"This is the strongest evidence yet that the sexual content
of television programs encourages adolescents to initiate sexual
intercourse and other sexual activities. The impact of television
viewing is so large that even a moderate shift in the sexual content
of adolescent TV watching could have a substantial effect on their
sexual behavior."
The
study found that programs that involved explicit discussions about
sex had just as much impact as those in which sex was depicted.
Collins said, "Both affect adolescents' perceptions of what
is normal sexual behavior and propels their own sexual behavior."
And, the study found that 12-year-olds who watched the most sexual
content behaved like the XXX 15-years-olds who watched the least
amount. "The advancement in sexual behavior we saw among
kids who watched a lot of sexual television was striking,"
said Collins. 14
Another
study from 1999 found that children who view televised pornography
risk emotional disturbance: "nightmares, anxiety, modeling
behaviour and problematic attitudinal changes." 15
Though
tighter controls on television broadcasting could prevent such harm,
children can still access such programs over the Internet. The high
speed and low-cost of personal computers and Internet access now
allow for the streaming of such video in real time, and for the
sharing of large files containing video in world-wide person-to-person
networks.
Dial-a-porn
The
1980s saw an explosion of dial-a-porn phone lines, some charging
outrageous tolls per minute of 'service.' At the time, countless
news reports chronicled the use of such services by teenagers and
even by young children.
Psychology
professor, Dr. Victor Cline of the University of Utah, conducted
a study on the effects of dial-a-porn on children. He wrote, "With
every one of the children we studied, we found an addiction effect
in making these calls. In every case, without exception, the
children (girls as well as boys) became hooked on this 'sex by phone'
and kept going back for more and still more."
"The
children did not stop making the calls until they were discovered.
In several cases more than 300 calls were made by a particular child.
Disclosure usually occurred when the parents received an enormous
phone bill. In nearly all cases there were some problems and tensions
generated in the parent-child and family relationships because of
their making dial-a-porn calls."
Numerous
sexual assaults by children, against other children, were
reported in the 1980s in connection with dial-a-porn. Among them
a ten year-old Michigan girl was raped by two brothers, 12 and 15
years old, who had listened to several dial-a-porn messages. In
California, a 4 year-old girl was raped by a 12 year-old boy who
had just spent two-and-a-half hours listening to dial-a-porn.
Consumer
and criminal complaints about children accessing such services have
diminished considerably due mainly to actions taken in the late
1980s by the US federal telephony regulator, the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). Domestically, Canada's phone companies, under
pressure from the federal government of the day, reached a private
agreement in 1990 to exclude such "undesirable" services
from using much of the national phone system.
Even
so, dial-a-porn appears to be making a come-back and late-night
Canadian television has seen a resurgence of advertizing for such
services in recent years. In addition, the development of Internet
telephony may well circumvent any national regulation of this media
in the future.
Video
Games
Video
Games are marketed primarily towards children, yet some games have
significant content that is decidedly inappropriate. Much of the
action in such games as Grand Theft Auto:Vice City and Duke Nukem
takes place in strip clubs and bars with scantily clad women as
the backdrop. Other games, such as Playboy:The Mansion and Singles:Flirt
Up Your Life, are far more up front with sexuality as the dominant
theme.
A 2004
study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association
found that in a random sampling of the roughly 400 video games rated
"T" for teens by the US-based Entertainment Software Rating
Board (ESRB), 27% depicted sexual themes although the ESRB had only
noted such content on 15% of games. 16
Little
research has been done into the actual effects of pornographic video
games on children, though it could be inferred that the interactive
nature of the media would make such pornography more potent than
similar visual content on the passive medium of television. Certainly
a study of violent content in video games led researchers to conclude
that exposure to such media had a significant impact on participants
views regarding real-life violence. The authors concluded, "The
active nature of playing video games, intense engagement, and the
tendency to be translated into fantasy play may explain negative
impact, though causality was not investigated in the (study.) 17"
Such
pornographic games are widely available in stores and can downloaded
over the Internet either legally or as 'pirated' software.
Formal
Education
Sex
education in many Canadian school jurisdictions ranges from the
indecent to the obscene. Graphic descriptions of various sexual
activities, including deviant activities, along with an implicit
or explicit instruction to "Experiment and find out what you
enjoy," are common. While children may not be exposed to such
'sex-ed' for an extended period of time, unlike other forms of pornography,
this pornography carries an official societal 'stamp of approval'
given its source and may have an enduring impact on impressionable
young minds.
Music
and Radio
Whether
it is the lyrics of such entertainers as Snoop Dog and Lil Kim,
or the on stage performances of Madonna and Britney Spears, the
music industry is an important cultural influence on children. Children
spend about 40 hours a week, on average, listening to their favourite
pop stars and other programs on the radio. This does not include
time spent watching music videos, some of which contain the most
pornographic content to be found on television. However, this does
include supposed 'sex-ed' programs, such as 'Dr. Ruth' or 'Sex with
Sue." According one study of teen-oriented radio programming,
22% of segments contain sexual content and 20% of these were "pretty
explicit" or "very explicit." 19
Fashion
The
sexualization of western culture is no better evidenced today than
by the choices individuals make in terms of their personal dress
and appearance. As a former Canadian Member of Parliament put it,
"Prostitutes are hard pressed to compete with young (teenage)
girls the way they dress today."
Indeed
a host of pop stars, such as Britney Spears, who appeal to children,
have helped promote a sexualization of apparel. In fact, some clothing
is so explicit it is even self-labelled as such. According to the
founders of PornStar Clothing their apparel is, "Market driven
by its shock appeal, non-conformist attitude and controversial moniker.
PornStar is 'alternative' clothing that is in demand among today's
risk-taking Gen X and Y crowd. PornStar is for the rebel in all
of us, someone who has a sense of humor but wants to let loose on
the weekends and make a statement."
Pedophiles
and pornography
Some
pornography, in the hands of pedophiles, will actively 'seek out'
children. According to numerous police officers who deal with child
sex crimes, pedophiles frequently use pornography to break down
the inhibitions of their child victims so they can abuse them.20
Pedophiles also use pornography (either in person, or over the Internet)
to teach children exactly what the molester wants. One US study
found that at least 62% of children entrapped in sex rings had been
exposed to adult pornography 21. In addition, in one
study, 53% of pedophiles admitted to deliberately using pornography
to arouse themselves before they assaulted children. 22
And Now, The Internet
The
introduction of the Internet has only deepened the problem for the
most recent generation. Modestly Internet-savvy children can find
pornography within seconds. This medium not only contains the most
vile and deviant pornography imaginable, it also offers pornography
in almost every one of the 'traditional' formats, from still photographs
to real-time video.
Despite
their wishes, children who attempt to avoid pornography can be inundated
with 'spam' and 'pop-ups,' and misled by apparently innocent websites
and links. Unsolicited communications from predators in 'chat rooms,'
according to one study, affected an astonishing "one in
five children between ages of 10 and 17 who received a sexual solicitation
over the Internet in 1999. One in 33 received an aggressive
solicitation from a stranger who asked to meet them somewhere, called
them on the telephone, or sent them mail, money, or gifts." 23
And,
unlike much traditional media, which is usually purchased or rented,
the Internet is essentially free of monetary cost. Even the minority
of children who lack Internet access at home often have ready access
at school, public libraries and the homes of friends. Not surprisingly,
the vast majority of children will likely be exposed to at least
some pornography during their childhood.
This
is no accident according to some researchers, who have concluded
that much of the multi-billion dollar pornography industry is focussed
specifically on 12 to 17 year-old males, with the goal of creating
adolescent addicts who will remain life-time consumers. 24
This marketing strategy is not unlike that alleged to be used by
the cigarette industry.
Pornography affects children
As
much of the research demonstrates, there is a modest to strong correlation
between exposure to pornography and deviant activity by individuals.
Child-centered studies show that children are affected at least
as much as adults are.
One
researcher who argues that pornography harms children puts it this
way, "A child's sexual development occurs gradually through
childhood. Exposure to pornography shapes children's sexual perspective
by providing them information on sexual activity. However, the type
of information provided by pornography does not provide children
with a normal sexual perspective."
"To
children, pornography is instructional in that it provides
a visual message about new information. However, that information
is not an accurate portrayal of human sexuality. Photographs, videos,
magazines, and virtual games which portray rape and the dehumanization
of females in sexual scenes are powerful forms of sex education.
Unlike learning provided in an educational setting, exposure to
pornography is counterproductive to the goal of healthy and appropriate
sexual development in children. It teaches without supervision or
guidance, inundating children's minds with graphic messages about
their bodies, their own sexuality, and those of adults and children
around them." 25
For
example, the 2004 television study conducted for the US National
Institute of Child Health states, "Watching sex on TV predicts
and may hasten adolescent sexual initiation. Reducing the amount
of sexual content in entertainment programming, reducing adolescent
exposure to this content, or increasing references to and depictions
of possible negative consequences of sexual activity could appreciably
delay the initiation of coital and noncoital activities." 26
Of course, there are serious public health consequences, such as
sexually transmitted diseases, that result from such sexual activity.
Such consequences can only be considered harmful. Of course, such
activity does not have to meet the standard required for a criminal
code conviction to be considered harmful.
State
of the Law
Canada's
Parliament has barely discussed the issue of Internet pornography,
let alone passed any legislation on the subject. When the nation's
obscenity laws were struck down by the Supreme Court in 1992, virtually
all pornography became legal material. Parliament reacted in 1993
by passing Bill C-128 to prohibit the production, distribution and
possession of child pornography depicting anyone (real or imaginary)
under the age of 18. Later amendments made luring a child over the
Internet a criminal offence too, although Canada's low age of
consent for sex, at 14 years of age, has prevented most prosecutions.
Yet,
children appear to face no legal obstacle to obtaining 'adult' pornography,
through most forms of media. Two exceptionS may be films
and video games, which are provincially regulated, limiting the
admission of children to theatres, and limiting somewhat the sale
and rental of most pornographic films and games. Even so, children
may still have access to such films through television and to both
films and games through the Internet.
The
United States has grappled with questions of regulating the Internet
since public usage first exploded in the mid-1990s. In 1996 Congress
passed the Communications Decency Act, which prohibited sending
indecent content to minors over the Internet. Parts of the legislation
were struck down by the Supreme Court in 1997 as too overly-broad.
Congress passed the Child On-Line Protection Act in 1998 to restrict
access to commercial pornographic websites and despite continuing
legal challenges, the law remains in force.
In
some settings civil sanctions are being pursued where criminal sanctions
are not. A debate continues to simmer in libraries across North
America over access by patrons, either adults or children, to pornography
on library computers provided for public use. Numerous libraries
have been sued by parents to restrict children's access to inappropriate
sites. And, in August 2003, a suit was brought by 12 librarians
against the Minneapolis Public Library over exposure to Internet
pornography. By allowing patrons to view online pornography and
print out such material, the litigants claimed the library had created
a hostile work environment. The library agreed to pay the librarians
nearly US$500,000 as a part of the settlement.
Conclusions
and Recommendations
While
no causal relationship has been conclusively demonstrated to exist
between viewing pornography and deviant behaviour, there does exist
a well-documented correlative effect.
A Dr.
Victor Cline points out in a discussion of the effects of pornography,
"The fact that we cannot adequately measure (the influences
of pornography) does not mean that they do not occur or that they
have no effects. For example, all of the evidence linking drunk
driving with high vehicular accident and fatality rates is correlational
and anecdotal. However, despite this, nearly all of us would agree
that there is probably a cause-effect relationship here. And many
laws have been passed as well as public policy decisions made, based
on this assumption."
"In
addition, I have not heard of any behavioral scientists who are
critical of this interpretation of the data and evidence, even though
it is only "correlational." Frequently, good judgment
- correct inference, and sound logic have to be used - along with
proper scientific data analysis, to arrive at reasonable judgments
about risk of harm," he says.
"In
the meantime, all people are faced with making daily decisions,
without final knowledge as to whether or not to continue smoking
or eating foods that may be carcinogenic (even though the data suggesting
their lethality is only correlational or suggestive--not conclusive)
and, similarly, whether or not to expose themselves or their offspring
to pornographic materials," he concludes. 27
Presently,
many parents appear to be aware of the potential for harm to children.
A recent study by the Kaiser Family Foundation found that a majority
of parents are "very concerned" about their child's exposure
to pornography from a variety of media sources, including the
Internet. According to the researchers, "When it comes to TV,
parents are most concerned that their children are being exposed
to too much sexual content, followed by concerns about violence
and adult language. Six in ten parents (60%) say they are "very"
concerned that their children are being exposed to too much sexual
content in the TV shows they watch; 53% are "very" concerned
about violent content, and 49% about adult language." 28
As
such, legislators may find significant public support for measures
to reduce children's exposure to pornography. Among measures that
could be implemented are:
- Provincial
or municipal regulations to govern the display of pornographic
magazines and books in commercial settings, such as convenience
stores, where children could legally be present, such as wrapping,
bagging and minimum-height-from-floor requirements;
- Provincial
and municipal regulations to govern the physical location of commercial
outlets whose primary business is pornographic book, magazines,
films or accessories;
- Provincial
regulations to tighten the definition of pornography in music,
films and video games, and prohibit their distribution to children;
- Provincial
and school board dress codes that emphasize modesty in schools;
- Provincial
and school board sex education curriculum focused primarily on
the medical and scientific realities of reproduction;
- Federal
regulations to prohibit the radio or television broadcast, including
cable, microwave or satellite broadcast, of pornographic material
at times when children could be tuning in;
- Federal
regulations to prohibit access by children to dial-a-porn phone
lines;
- Federal
Criminal Code amendments to tighten the definition of "obscenity";
- Federal
Criminal Code provisions to deny children access to domestic pornographic
websites, and prohibit the transmission of pornography over the
Internet to children (whether it is 'spam,' or person-to-person
file sharing);
Legislatures
and courts have long agreed that for their protection, health and
well-being, children may not be entitled to the same broad freedoms
to which adults may lay claim. Even so, none of these measures should
unduly infringe on the free speech rights of adults. As such, these
recommendations are intended to serve and strengthen the common
good in a free and democratic society.
1
"Online Porn Driving Sexually Aggressive Children" Patrick Goodenough
CNSNews.com November 26, 2003
2 "Porn Gave Kids Know-how to Assault Their Friends" Susan
Clairmont, The Hamilton Spectator Mar. 25, 2004.
3 Sommers,E.K. and Check,J.V. Violence and Victims 1987 2:
189-209
4 Allen, M., & D'Allessio, D. (1995). A meta-analysis summarizing
the effects of pornography II: Aggression after exposure. Human
Communication Research, 22, 258-283
5 Bryant Jennings, Report to Attorney General Commission
on Pornography, US Dept. of Justice, 1986
6 Koop, C. Everett Report of the Surgeon General's Workshop
on Pornography and Public Health. American Psychologist. 1987 Oct
Vol 42(10) 944-945
7 Schimmer, R. (1993). The impact of sexually stimulating
materials and group care residents: A question of harm. Residential
Treatment for Children and Youth, 11, (2), 37-55.
8 Court, J.H. Sex and violence: a ripple effect. In N. Malamuth
and E. Donnerstein (eds.) Pornography and sexual aggression. New
York: Academic Press 1984
9 Donnerstein, Edward, Aggressive Erotica and Violence Against
Women Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 39, No.
2, 1980, pp. 269-277
10 Donnerstein, E. and Berkowitz, L. (1981). Victim reactions
in aggressive- erotic films as a factor in violence against women.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41: 710-724.
11 Malamuth, N. (1978). Erotica, aggression and perceived
appropriateness. Paper presented at the 86th annual convention of
the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Canada.
12 Bryant Jennings, Report to Attorney General Commission
on Pornography, US Dept. of Justice, 1986
13 Aaron Hass, Teenage Sexuality, Macmillan: New York, 1979
14 Rebecca L. Collins, Marc N. Elliott, Sandra H. Berry,
David E. Kanouse, Dale Kunkel, Sarah B. Hunter, and Angela Miu Watching
Sex on Television Predicts Adolescent Initiation of Sexual Behavior
Pediatrics 2004; 114: e280-e289
15 Benedek, Elissa and Brown, Catherine "No excuses: televised
pornography harms children". In Harvard Review of Psychiatry,
v.7, 1999, p.236-240.
16 Kevin Haninger; Kimberly M. Thompson, ScD Content and
Ratings of Teen-Rated Video Games JAMA. 2004;291:856-865.
17 Funk JB, Baldacci HB, Pasold T, Baumgardner J. Violence
exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the
Internet: is there desensitization?J Adolesc. 2004 Feb;27(1):23-39.
18 Klein JD, Brown JD, Childers KW, Oliveri J, Porter C,
Dykers C. Adolescents' risky behavior and mass media use. Pediatrics
1993 Jul;92(1):24-31.
19 Gentile DA. Teen-oriented radio and CD sexual content
analysis. National Institute on Media and the Family. 1999.
20 Cline, V. Report on the effects of Dail-a-porn to the
US Dept. of Justice, 1985
21 Ann Burgess and Marianne Clark, Child Pornography and
Sex Rings, Lexington Press, Lexington MA, 1984.
22 W. L. Marshall, "The Use of Sexually Explicit Stimuli
by Rapists, Child Molesters, and Nonoffenders," The Journal of
Sex Research 25, no.2 (May 1988): 267-88.
23 Kimberly J. Mitchell, David Finkelhor, Janis Wolak The
exposure of youth to unwanted sexual material on the Internet
Youth & Society, vol. 34 no. 3, March 2003 330-358
24 Reisman, J.A. "Soft Porn" Plays Hard Ball: Its Tragic
Effects on Women, Children and the Family, Huntington House,
Lafayette, LA 1991
25 Dr. Gary Brooks, The Centerfold Syndrome, Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco 1995
26 Rebecca L. Collins, Marc N. Elliott, Sandra H. Berry,
David E. Kanouse, Dale Kunkel, Sarah B. Hunter, and Angela Miu Watching
Sex on Television Predicts Adolescent Initiation of Sexual Behavior
Pediatrics 2004; 114: e280-e289
27 Dr. Victor Cline: Pornography's Effects on Adult and Child. Mental Health Resource Foundation Website: http://mentalhealthlibrary.info
28 Victoria Rideout, Parents, Media and Public Policy,
Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004
Back
to Research Reports
Pdf
Version Click Here |
